Home

... individuals.¹

It is difficult to name an exact date, but the majority of authors share the opinion that this revolution began with the MIPS Altair  (Cringely 57; Ebeling 78; Hiltzik 324; Ichbiah 42; Tanenbaum 315; Turkle Die Wunschmaschine 205 and Life on the Screen 43). The Altair was introduced in January 1975 at a price of $399. 4,000 units had been sold by August 1975, which constituted 3 percent of all computers in the United States (Ebeling 78).

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... personality.²

See especially Turkle (Die Wunschmaschine 203-240 and Life on the Screen 102), Laurel (355-356), and Rötzer (Wir sind zu höflich zu unseren Computern, Wut auf Computer), and Computer-Frust nimmt zu.

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... 35).³

The abbreviation HCI will be used for Human-Computer Interface from this point forward.

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... interfaces.⁴

It is difficult to obtain precise figures; see, however, U.S. v. Microsoft where Microsoft is expected to dominate the operating system market with more than 90 percent market share.

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... interaction.⁵

A comparison of Microsoft Windows with the Apple MacOS is not intended. When differences are found, they will be mentioned for the purpose of exactness.

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... boxes⁶

US spelling will be used since this term is taken from the manuals of two US companies.

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... 5).⁷

According to Vorndran, vacuum tubes replaced relays in 1943 (86).

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... 213).⁸

Zuse had developed his Plankalkül, a logical programming language, in 1946, but he didn't publish it until 1972 (Zuse 91 and 140; A Brief History of Programming Languages).

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... 6).⁹

It must be mentioned that IBM did not sell computers at that time; IBM computers including service units were rented. Thus, the builders of the machines were still very close to their creations (Hamming 5; Watson 156).

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... 7).¹⁰

Mention should also be made of LISP (LISt Processing), introduced in 1959. It was the first functional programming language, which became famous in the field of Artificial Intelligence (Klaeren 16).

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... 108).¹¹

In contrast to this, Tanenbaum regards the use of small-scale integrated circuits as the beginning of the third computer generation in 1965 (8). According to Vorndran, this did not happen earlier than 1968 which marks the beginning of the fourth computer generation in his opinion (111).

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... 10).¹²

The PDP-1 sold for $120,000 which was much cheaper than mainframes at that time.

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... 795).¹³

Spooling is an acronym for Several Peripheral operation On-Line (Silberschatz and Galvin 7).

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... 111).¹⁴

Also, it could be argued that computing time had to become cheaper in order to let humans become more important.

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... 10).¹⁵

Although the history of UNIX is very fascinating, it cannot be dicussed here; see Tanenbaum's section about the history of UNIX (266-271) for more information on the topic.

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... 271-272).¹⁶

This has been true regarding the user interface for a long time. However, concepts of UNIX still play a prominent role due to the rise of LINUX. What is more, other operating systems contain a large part of UNIX, e.g. MacOS X or Windows NT, which is compatible to the POSIX 1003.1 standard (Silberschatz and Galvin 745).

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... 165).¹⁷

PROLOG was introduced in 1972 (A Brief History of Programming Languages).

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... 57-68).¹⁸

The history of Apple Computer has been outlined by several authors, including for example Carlton, Linzmayer, and Malone.

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... 78).¹⁹

For a history of Microsoft see Ichbiah.

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... (315-316).²⁰

See Tanenbaum for the history of the development of the IBM PC and DOS (315-321).

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... 166).²¹

Bauknecht and Zehnder point out that the first object-oriented programming language was introduced in 1967; however, Simula-67 did not become very popular (166).

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... 128).²²

The abbreviation GUI will be used for "graphical user interface" from this point forward.

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... 162).²³

See engelbart's unfinished revolution for pictures of this event; see also Roch's article Die Geschichte der Computermaus for a discussion about similar input devices that were invented before this.

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... xiii).²⁴

For a history of Xerox PARC see Hiltzik.

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... 395-396).²⁵

The Xerox Star  was introduced in 1981 at a price of $16,595; due to its high price, only 30,000 units were sold (Hiltzik 366-370). It's precedessor Alto  was never introduced to the market, but would have cost between $18,000 and $40,000 (Hiltzik 176; Ichbiah 165; Linzmayer 61).

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... Levy).²⁶

The Lisa shipped for about $9,995 (Malone 249), the Macintosh for $2,495 (Linzmayer 99).

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... paper.²⁷

For further information see Carlton (54 and 109), Hiltzik (395-396), Ichbiah (212-217), Linzmayer (65) and Malone (419 and 558).

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... 49):²⁸

Scanners, digitizing tablets, data gloves, speech I/O devices, and other devices could be listed, but the basic equipment of an average user will be dealt with.

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... (59-61).²⁹

Immersion's FEELIT MOUSE provides users with feedback of actions taking place on the screen; folders with many files are "heavier" than folders with fewer files, for example. The prototype was introduced to the public in 1997; since then, it has not gone into mass production (see http://www.heise.de/newsticker/data/cf-20.11.97-000/ for further information). See also Negroponte's thoughts (167).

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... customized.³⁰

An Apple Macintosh comes with a single-button mouse; however, a third-party mouse may provide the same functions as a Windows mouse.

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...RAM)³¹

The registers of the CPU could also be regarded as short-term memory as pointed out by Dix et al., but they are not important in this study. Similarly, most computers have a kind of sensory memory which is called a buffer; this memory stores, for example, keyboard input while the CPU is busy.

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... 27).³²

It is assumed that the average user has a single-processor system, not a multi-processor system which permits the user to run more than one process simultaneously.

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... crash.³³

It could be assumed that well-written programs do not crash due to a hardware error but this is not always the case.

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... (9-24):³⁴

Of course, there are also other senses (taste and smell), but these senses are not important for this study. It is questionable if they will play any significant role in the near future. For further information about the details of each channel see Dix et al. and Hasebrook.

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... mouse.³⁵

What is more, both channels are very important for handicapped users; however, this subject will not be further investigated.

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... (22-24).³⁶

See also section 3.1.1 for information about computer peripherals with force-feedback

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... into:³⁷

This is a rather classic view; see Dörner and Selg (162-176).

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... button³⁸

However, all files that have been copied before will not be removed from the new location.

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... (23-25).³⁹

For a detailed discussion of individual differences see Helander 543-565.

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... 19).⁴⁰

Turkle, however, claims that Weizenbaum's fear, people could abuse ELIZA, is unjustified according to her own research (108).

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... 1990s.⁴¹

For a discussion of Cyborg literature and the impact of science see Johnson 187 and Turkle Life on the Screen 25 and 264-265. See also Krempl Game-Designer am Drücker for a report about a game developer conference during which the merging of reality and cyberspace was discussed.

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... 9)⁴²

Turkle pusblished The Second Self in 1984, a few years after IBM had introduced the PC (the German translation Die Wunschmaschine is used for this paper). In this book, she recognizes the one-to-one identity-transforming relationship between humans and computers. In Life on the Screen, first published in 1995, this view had changed to a one-to-many relationship in the context of the internet.

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... (30).⁴³

Turkle mentions that the term user is connected to drug user; however, she emphasizes that drugs are external, while users feel forced to stay at their computers due to internal longings. This is why she prefers to use the term "seduction".

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... (41-42).⁴⁴

In the author's opinion, the rise of LINUX proves that controllability has not lost its fascination. Albeit, the presence of pre-configured systems shows that the acceptance of LINUX does not only rely on this factor.

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... relationship.⁴⁵

The term "hacker" was originally used for advanced computer users. Today, it is rather used for computer users who use their knowledge for criminal purposes. Turkle refers to the first meaning.

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... folder.⁴⁶

The Microsoft Windows "My Computer", "Network Neighborhood", and Windows and Macintosh volumes will be regarded as folders from this point forward.

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... (286).⁴⁷

Menus do not only exist in graphical-user interfaces but also in non-windowing systems (Dix et al 109). They present groups of commands, attributes or states which are available to a user at a given time (Apple 50). Regarding window systems, a pointer is used in order to select an option which is subsequently highlighted (see figure 3).

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... selected".⁴⁸

Buxton regards this as "natural language" (408-409).

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... 3),⁴⁹

In some cases, menus can be torn off the menu bar and become palettes.

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... menus⁵⁰

Again, Microsoft calls this type of menu a drop-down list box (152-154) whereas pop-up menus are contextual menus (126-127).

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... all.⁵¹

If there are, they would play a minor role in human-computer interaction in the author's opinion.

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... predefined.⁵²

Programmers could add an "I apologize" button operation to a menu but what should an apology change in the system's behaviour?

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... Macintosh;⁵³

The SimpleText version number is 1.3.1.

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... adjective.⁵⁴

In some cases, these adjectives could also be regarded as commissives made by the system: the Style menu, for example, lists the Bold command item in a bold face, the Underline command in a underlines face and so on. With regard to the WYSIWYG principle, this has to be regarded as a promise.

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... use.⁵⁵

Mention must be made that Microsoft does not use the term "desktop metaphor" for the Windows interface; instead, it is called a metaphor of objects. These objects have properties, there are operations that change the objects, and they have relationships (Microsoft 18-20). However, since basic concepts of the desktop metaphor such as files, folders, and a trash can are used in Microsoft Windows (Windows 3.x does not have a trash can), the term "desktop metaphor" will be further used in this paper.

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...folders,⁵⁶

The folders used in Windows as well in the MacOS are usually not used in Germany.

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... can,⁵⁷

[...] even though most trash cans don't sit on the desktop (Apple Computer Macintosh Human Interface Guidelines 4)

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... users.⁵⁸

See Microsoft 15 for a similar observation.

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... 66).⁵⁹

A "pointer" could also be regarded as a metaphor as Erickson points out.

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... computers.⁶⁰

Regarding Windows 3.x, it was an interface on top of a graphical user interface on top of a command-based system (see section 2.2.2) As far as the author of this paper knows, the Phönix Office was discontinued in 1996.

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... 443)⁶¹

Interestingly enough, Walker's article is only a few pages away from Brennan's article Conversation as Direct Manipulation in the same book. Mention should, however, be made of the disciplinary background of both authors; while Brennan worked for the department of psychology at Stanford University and the Natural Language Project at Hewlett-Packard Labs, Walker worked for Autodesk, a supplier of CAD (Computer-Aided Design) software. Thus, it is understandable that their opinions differ. It is, though, interesting to imagine how their opinions collided when they met at a conference for that book in December 1988.

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... property.⁶²

Although users encounter error messages which seem to be obscure as will be shown in section 5.3.3, these messages are not regarded as a part of the "pure" desktop metaphor.

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... following.⁶³

Of course, this decision is debatable, and, technically speaking, there is a difference between a program and a window. However, in most cases a program displays a primary window, and it is difficult for users to distinguish between the two.

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... counterparts.⁶⁴

Here, Kai Krause's interface metaphors are more consistent; tools are not grouped in utility windows but are placed next to the document or in a drawer. What is more, tools are not "iconized" but look like their real-world counterparts (see Figure 9).

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... 107-108)⁶⁵

Note that Johnson does not only talk about windows but also about programs. Thus, the decision to use the terms interchangeably seems to be justified in this case.

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... boxes;⁶⁶

Apple Computer calls message boxes alert boxes which are a subgroup of dialog boxes.

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... information.⁶⁷

It could also be argued that the user wants the system to know the information.

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... anything.⁶⁸

See Krempl's article Game-Designer am Drücker; in this article, Krempl quotes Danny Hillis who is unhappy with cash dispensers which utter a "Thank you". According to Hillis, everybody knows that these machines cannot be grateful. See also Dörner about his machine with feelings (66-69).

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... assumption.⁶⁹

The author of this paper had to design a slideshow which is shown during the installation process of an internet access software. The last slide contained the sentence "Congratulations, you have successfully installed [product name]!" While entering these words, the author thought that it was not clear who is congratulating who and for what. Does the installation routine congratulate the user for having pressed the right buttons? Does the company congratulate the user for having chosen this company instead of a competitor? Should the company thank the user? Should the slide include a photo of the team members in order to let the user know who utters this congratulations? Will users feel happy when they read it?

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... language.⁷⁰

Interestingly enough, the word error is not used in Microsoft's Guidelines, and Microsoft even recommends avoiding this word (214). As a consequence, errors are called issues, and bug fixes are called service packs. Nevertheless, the word error can be found on Microsoft's support web pages (see http://support.microsoft.com/support/serviceware/windows/win95/default.asp?FR=0).

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... itself.⁷¹

The author of this paper has tried to reproduce this error but did not succeed. Thus, the author assumes that EUDORA usually says "HELO" and that the error in Figure 13 occured due to a network error. It could be argued that it is unfair to deal with an error message which is seldom displayed. However, similar error messages are often seen, for example when trying to send a mail via a SMTP server which does not belong to the network the user belongs to.

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... text.⁷²

A SMTP server is only required to send the error code; text is obligatory.

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... text.⁷³

After sending the error code a SMTP server sends a special character before any text is sent.

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... "input".⁷⁴

It is questionable whether there is an equivalent to the startup and the shutdown process of a system. Some systems like the Macintosh display a "Welcome" screen while starting, but in contrast to human-human communication this greeting cannot be answered. It could be argued that pressing the power button of a system is like a greeting which "wakes up" the system. Then, the "Welcome" screen would be an answer to the user's greeting. Furthermore, it is questionable whether a greeting such as that of the MacOS counts as a greeting according to Searle's felicity conditions. Finally, before the MacOS "utters" the greeting, the user may interact with the system, for example he may press special keys in order to boot from a different volume or to start without system extensions; thus, a conversation may start before the greeting takes place. There is another reason why the startup process of a computer system should not be compared to the greeting in a human-human conversation: computers have to load the system into memory every time they are started, and there is no real-world equivalent.There are, of course, exceptions such as terrible accidents which require people to learn everything from the beginning, but these are exceptions.

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... HCI).⁷⁵

Technically speaking, this is not true as pointed out in section 3.1.4. However, it is doubtable whether the majority of computer users are aware of the fact that only one program can run at one time. Furthermore, it is unlikely that users see the programs switching.

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... input.⁷⁶

Apart from the CPU being busy, other layers of a system may account for the inability in accepting user input, as described by Dix et al. (87-88):

• storage channel bound
• graphics bound
• network capacity

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... can.⁷⁷

Some features of the SONICFINDER have been added to recent versions of the MacOS.

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... 524).⁷⁸

On the Mac, the cursor has to hit the trash can in order to delete a file; since most icons are bigger than the cursor, users often mistake the position of the cursor and drag the icon next to the trash can.

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... perfect.⁷⁹

The Apple Macintosh comes with speech recognition, albeit only for English speakers. However, using it is a game rather than an usable extension in the author's opinion.

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... means.⁸⁰

see especially IBM's Human Language Technologies, http://www.research.ibm.com/hlt/.

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... desktop.⁸¹

The notion of a butler came from a bow tie the actor wore in the video.

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... dilemma:⁸²

This dilemma was touched in the discussion of other metaphors in section 5.1.

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